Wildland fire managers need information about public tolerance for smoke emissions from prescribed and naturally ignited fires. Understanding the factors that contribute to (in)tolerance will help managers anticipate public responses, communicate effectively, and plan fires that fall within acceptable smoke parameters. This study builds on previous research on public perceptions of fire, smoke, and air quality to develop a theoretical model to predict tolerance. The study expands on previous case study research and regional investigations to compare two high-fire regions of the United States. It responds to the questions outlined in JFSP RFA 2010-1.3 that ask how tolerance is related to length of exposure and concentration of smoke, the source of the smoke/purpose of the fire, and the degree of active fire management. Additionally, it investigates the RFA question related to community preparedness by contrasting wildland-urban interface communities that evidence high levels of fire preparation with those that have not yet prepared. Data will be collected via a mail survey of a random sample of residents from 18 communities (n=200 completed surveys per community) in the inland west and southeast regions. In each region, 3 highly prepared WUI communities (completion of Community Wildland Protection Plans), 3 less prepared WUI communities (no plan), and 3 urban communities will be selected in consultation with fire managers. Mail surveys will follow the Dillman protocol, with follow-up phone interviews to assess non-response tendencies. The questionnaires will present multi-item Likert-type measures of constructs (e.g., personal value orientations, beliefs about the relationship of smoke to environmental health, perceptions of vulnerability to smoke and ability to mitigate those consequences, individual characteristics, and trust in fire managers). Following data reduction (i.e., factor analysis and index construction) these will be related (through path models) to a multi-item measure of smoke tolerance. Additionally, the questionnaire will present scenarios describing combinations of levels of attributes (e.g., duration of exposure, certainty of management control, cost, source of ignition), which they will rate for acceptability. Conjoint analysis of these ratings will reveal the relative importance of attributes and levels. Comparison of findings from the two regions and between WUI and urban communities will provide information about the generalizability of the relationships that are uncovered. Comparison of WUI-prepared and unprepared communities will reveal the extent to which fire planning affects tolerance of smoke, information useful to fire managers working in WUI areas. This study also plans to improve materials for training fire professionals and effective public outreach. To accomplish this, we will develop a stand-alone module for the Rx410 and Technical Fire Management trainings, and results will be incorporated into three courses at the University of Idaho that are taken by current and future fire professionals in residence and on-line. As part of this effort (and for use in the questionnaires), we will develop a smoke photo guide that can be used in public meetings and trainings to depict different levels of smoke. The study builds on several previous and on-going efforts by the project team, including previous development of a smoke photo series for firefighters, a recently funded National Science Foundation grant for Integrated Graduate Education and Research Traineeship (which focuses on fire and forest health issues in the northern Rocky Mountains), assessment of NWCG courses, and development of on-line academic courses. Other deliverables include conference presentations, two informational flyers to be distributed to fire professionals, a website, three refereed publications (through a PhD dissertation), and hosting a session on smoke at a relevant professional meeting.